ISSUES FEMINISM

In the West, feminist discourse has long been used, its development over ideological feminism is also venturing into the world of Islam. Muslim scholars see it as a new approach. On the other hand Islam often associated with the issue of discrimination against women. In the end, Muslims face two opposite choices.

The concept that became the basis of this Gender mainly derived from Western societies that have long experienced problems of the relationship between women and men. The concept was formed from the protests of the women in a movement called feminism movement. The term feminism is derived from the Latin meaning Femina women. It is said of the word fides and a fe-minus minus. In Hammer Wiches book written by two people Inquisitor Diminican, re-reviewed by Ruth Tucker and Walter Liefeld in a book called Daughters of The Cruch.

"The very word to describe woman, Femina, According to the authors (of Wiches Hammer) is Derive, from fe and minus, interpreted as less in faith".

The most appropriate word to describe women, Femina by author (Wiches Hammer) is derived from the fed and minus or minus fides can mean weak in faith.

Regardless of whether the basic etymological Femina said was true or just a hoax, a clear women in the West in its history is treated like a lack of faith. Meanwhile, opponents said the masculine "Masculinus" or "Masculinity" is also full of faith but instead mean strength of sexuality, do not be surprised if the woman in the West in the past become victims of torture for any errors in religion as well as rape. If the condition is an important factor in the birth of discourse and even feminism and gender theory it can be concluded that both are social constructs of Western society whose primary mission is to develop equality (equality).

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. Rationale

At first feminists to use the issue of "rights" and "equality" of women as the cornerstone of the struggle, but the late 1960s feminists use the term "oppression" and "freedom" which later feminism expressed itself as "Women's liberation movement". In general, the birth of feminism is divided into three groups which raise different issues.

1. The First Wave

Marked by the publication of Mary Wollstonecraft's "Vindication of the Rights of Women" CE 1792, he describes the psychological and economic damage suffered by women due to women's economic dependence on men's and women's exclusion from public space.

Attention is to obtain the first wave of feminist political rights and equal economic opportunities for women. The feminists argue that women have the capacity ratio equal to men. Finally in 1920, she managed to get the right to vote in elections. Not only that feminists also managed to win the ownership rights for women, greater reproductive freedom and access to greater educational and professional.

2. Theory of First Wave Feminism

a. Liberalism Feminism

Man is autonomous, led by reason. With mapu human reason to understand the principles of morality, that freedom of the individual. These principles also guarantee individual rights. Issues they raise are: access to education and gender biased State policy, civil rights and politics.

b. Feminism Radikalism

System is the basis of sex or gender oppression against women. Issues they raise are: the existence of sexism, patriarchal society, reproductive rights, power relations between men and women.

c. Feminism Marxism

Matrialism historical Marx who said that the mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual. Not consciousness that determines one's existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness. Issues they raise are: economic inequality, property ownership, family and domestic life under capitalism and wage a campaign of domestic work.

3. Feminist Waves into Two

In 1949 was marked by the emergence of the publication of Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex. He argued that the gender difference is not rooted in biology, but it was deliberately created to reinforce the oppression of women. For this second wave feminists that the political and legal equality is not enough to end the oppression of women, in their point of view, the suppression sexualism not only rooted in law and politics, but the cause is planted in every aspect of human social life, including economics, political and social planning, fiber norms, habits, daily interactions and personal relationships.

Feminism also sue Two waves to the institution of marriage, motherhood, relationships opposite sex (heterosexual relationship), women's sexuality and others. They fought hard to radically alter every aspect of political and personal life.

4. Feminist Theory of Waves to two

Femism Psychoanalyst

Suppression of women's fundamental explanation lies in the psyche (soul psychic) ​​women, how women think. Issues they raise are: self-centered men who consider women suffer from "penis envy", dual parenting.

5. Feminist Waves into Three

Starting in 1980 women who want diversity to diversity in general, particularly in feminist theory and politics. As an example of color is maintained when the first experience, interests and concerns they are not represented by fminis wave-2 is dominated by middle-class white woman. As an example of oppression of middle-class white women differed significantly with female oppression experienced by black Americans. Oppression of women differ from heterosexual sexual oppression experienced by the lesbian and so on.

6. Feminist Theory of Waves into Three

a. Post Modern Feminism

    As the flow of thought reject Postmoderism phalogo Centris

b. Multi Cultural Feminism

     In line with postmodern philosophy but rather emphasizes cultural study. Oppression of women by

     patriarchy can not, only described but there is connectivity problem with race, ethnicity and so on.

    In Global feminism is not just of race and ethnicity but also the result of colonialism and the

    dichotomy of "first world" and "third world".

At the beginning of its emergence feminism looks like a reactive movement against the oppression of the church, but later developments showed the roots of this movement is to understand relativism, which assumes that it is right or wrong, as well as on good or bad is not absolute, but diverse and biased, changed -fox depends on the individual, the environment and conditions. One of the effects of understanding relativism embraced by feminists is practice fosters homosexual practices in society, because what was considered wrong, now under the pretext of respect for human rights, has turned into a truth.

In the opinion of Chris Beasly, lesbians are the most obvious antithesis of patriarchy which became the main color on the doctrine of the church. In addition Garnets also believes that lesbians generally have a sense of freedom from the bonds of gender role barriers. Lesbian couples are able to create new relationships and patterns can reduce the unequal power that is sometimes found in a traditional heterosexual relationship. That's the view of the lesbian feminists, the feminist movement has also led to new social problems -fertilize with homosexual practices, adultery and sex outside of marriage. In the end the feminist movement has distanced her from the warmth of family. Women are too busy pursuing a career to prove their existence, many of those who later underwent depression and other psychological problems because against nature and instinct as a woman.

B. Women in the West

Let's look at the condition of the West (in this case Europeans) in medieval times when the voices of feminists began to sound. In medieval times, the church serves as the central power and the pope as leader of church, established itself as a center and source of power. Until 17th century, the church still retains the position of hegemony, many things that can undermine the authority and legitimacy of the church regarded as heresy and brought before the Inquisition court. West did not escape the detestable doctrines of the church is extreme and not in accordance with human nature. In the decades 1560 and 1648 many studies done to renew the spiritual concept of Saint Paul's about women, ie women who are considered as a source of sin and is the second-class beings in this world. Although some personal opinion and public law relating to the status of women in the West is quite varied, but there is strong evidence indicating that women have been regarded as inferior beings.

Mawdudi argued, there are two basic doctrines of the church that makes the position of women in the medieval West is like an animal:

1. The Church considers women as mothers of sin that is rooted from evil demons.

2. Women who plunges into the prayer and the evil man and led him to hell. (The story of Adam

    and Eve)

Others who opposed the doctrine of the Church and the burdensome nature of man women are considered sexual relations between men and women are dirty event, despite being in lawful wedlock. This implies that the symbol of sanctity avoid marriage, chastity and moral elevation.

At the beginning of the 17th century, which is the century of enlightenment for feminists, when Bacon wrote his essay about the condition of British women who at that time experiencing difficult life dank Eras. It can be seen from the life of Elizabeth. At that time acting as a ruler was King James I, and it turns out he hates women. Murder and arson against women who are considered "old witch", led by the pastor, is essentially the expression of anti-women. Clearly, the oppression of women in the West under the government of the Church to make the voices of women who want the freedom increasingly echoed everywhere.

C. Women under the authority of Marxism

CONCEPT to Marxist theory: IMPLICATIONS feminist

Marxist feminists identified that classism is the cause of depression in women. Depression is a product of the political structure, social, and economic. Comments for the work of women as an example. Considered women's work is never finished the job so there is a conception in women that if they do not do the job like that, then they are not women. Marxist feminists also explained that in order to find out why women were depressed by men should do an analysis on the relationship between employment status

Marxist feminism CONTEMPORARY

1. Families and Households in the Lower patriarchy

Marxist theory provides only a narrow little room for issues that talk about women's reproductive and sexual violence. This is why most feminist Marxist focus on issues concerning women's work. It was said about women's work as an example of women's work is often only considered as light work and not hard to do. We can easily find it in a patriarchal household. At first the work of women such as cooking, caring is the central work. But with industrialization and the production of goods transfers from households to the public workplace, womens that does not work outside the home is branded as being nonproductive.

If women's work to stepchild as nonproductive work, then when women work outside the home were they will become second-class workers with lower pay. Although most of the proletarian class women go to work helping her husband, still it does not alter the view that most of the work women do is lower when compared with the work being done to men.

2. Socialization Domestic Work

Marxist feminists see a picture of the nature and function of women as consumers in the sense of men out looking for money and women who spend it. This picture is totally wrong because, according to Margaret Benston, one feminist, women are the producers responsible for the production of use values ​​is simple in activities associated with home and family. Because the products produced women like a family meal or a seam is not sold children's clothing, people tend to see the production of women in the family made it lighter than marketed production results (such as instant food). According to Benston, it's useless if women are given the opportunity to enter the realm of public industries if at the same time socializing housework such as cooking, clean up and caring for children is not done. The key to the liberation of women according to Benston is the socialization of housework.

Socialization of housework women do not mean it is recognized Benston able to liberate women from housework, but this change will allow each person to realize how important domestic work socially. By looking at the difficulty of housework women are wont to do, people no longer see women as inferior beings and parasites. This Benston championed by campaigning for the job tumah wage ladder. In order to be compared to other industrial jobs, it is fitting for domestic workers paid by the state. That's the opinion of Dallas and James Costa about the socialization of housework this.

Unfortunately, wages for domestic workers is drawn criticism and argument. The state will have difficulty paying every housewife in the end it will be burdened with difficulty to their husbands as a tax. Marxist feminists aimed at destroying the division of labor based on gender wage regard housework as a distraction from achieving that goal, or even inhibitors. According to Marxist feminists, women will always be people who retreated from the public world and back into the private world for women's wages

remain lower than men.

VALUE EQUIVALENT

In recent years, Marxist feminists became more interested in how the division of labor to function in the workplace. When women go into public industry, he tends to do "women's work" ie, teaching, caring, cooking, sewing, etc.. Work was not appreciated in the industry so the public is such that women earn two-thirds of the male equivalent, although the actual work. Marxist feminists support comparable worth or equal value because nearly half of poor families headed by unmarried women. If the women are paid sesuapi with value work, then women may be able to feed herself and her family without being forced to rely on men. Moreover, feminist Marxist view that the presence of equal value, if the jobs that are traditionally regarded as women's work to offer higher wages than jobs that are traditionally regarded as men's work, it will be a lot of men who are interested in women's work is so equivalent value will gradually be able to remove the sexual division of labor in the workplace.

CRITICISM OF Marxist feminist

1. Criticism From the communitarian

Character is Jean Bethke Elsthain. He saw that the feminist marxist too considers the family as a result of construction of the reproduction of capitalism at the expense of women's labor. Marxist feminists Elshtain warned that the institution of the human family is the best protection against a totalitarian state can not tolerate any difference. Families allow the birth of a critical perspective because of differences in shared values ​​with the values ​​taught in the socialization of society. Marxist feminists accuse Elshtain certainly accept the stereotypical image of capitalist America of the families in which women bear children and then let their children cared for by the pattern of parenting that ignore the women. However, most Marxist feminists regard the traditional family (husband and wife man woman-child) as an ideal family so they speculate on the actual society, men would marry women but they would be the equivalent, heterosexual couples will have children but their children will be social responsibility, and people will build their households even if only to accommodate the activities of child care, cooking, and cleaning. Many of the feminist Marxist who actually supports the picture of the family Elshtain.

2. The Socialist Feminist Criticism

Allison Jaggar criticism of the Marxist feminist perspective is a critique of socialist feminist marxist concerned that inadequate in addressing the oppression of women by men. Marxist feminists in discussing about the oppression against women, they argued that the capital as the main opresor against women as temporary workers as a male secondary opresor against women as women. But whether men are really only a secondary opresor against women? Are not many women's issues are not related to the nature and function of women's work? How Marxist feminist analysis of these issues?
For Jaggar, Feminist Marxist rarely raised issues related to sex. Once appointed, they compared sex with a job as a husband-wife relationship to the bourgeois-proletarian relations, as husband-wife relationship is exploitative and alienating as employer-employee relationship.

If in the West women circumscribed by the doctrine of the church, then another case with a woman who under the leadership of the Marxist understanding, which they blame social structures developed in the community at that time. According to their gender disparity between men and women, not caused by biological factors or a gift from God, but is part of the oppression of the ruling class of the oppressed who applied the concept of family. As according to Clara Zetkin (1857-1933) and Rossa Luxemburg (1871-1919) the structure of society at that time was caused mainly by differences in social status between men and women. That is why Marxism questioned the relationship between man and woman, husband-wife households and institutions.

D. Women under the leadership of Islam

Let us look a little story of one of his companions. It was narrated that a man came to Umar ibn Khottob ra, will sue his wife's character. Arriving there, he stood and waited in front of the door, Umar just silent, did not return from his wife's nagging. The man rose to go home and say to himself: "If only al-Mu'minin like this, then what about me?" He replied: "O Amir al-Mu'minin, I was dating my wife intends to sue character who likes to yell at you. Then I later heard iatrimu middle yelled. So I said to myself: "If al-Mu'minin only patient with nagging wife, then why should I complain?" Then Umar said: "O my brother, I really really really be patient because my wife has a right to me. It was he who had been cooking for me, wash my clothes and nursing my son, but it was not required it. Besides, he had to reconcile my heart to not fall into a forbidden act. Therefore I be patient ats all sacrifice ". "O Amir al-Mu'minin, my wife was so", said the man said. So Umar had advised him: "Be patient, O my brother, because of nagging wife just a minute". That's about the position of women in Islam, so that the Khalifahpun provide good role models in interacting with them.

But very unfortunately, over the times of Islam is often associated with the issue of discrimination against women. This is caused by going about some of the State that carries the name of Islam. Semisalnya no prohibition mufti of Egypt, al-Shaykh Muhammad Hasanayn Makhluf in 1952 about the involvement of women in all forms of public activities and limit their activities in the home, however this fatwa create controversy among the clergy themselves. Then also the Taliban government that once had been denying the right to education for women. Furthermore, in Pakistan, the presence of guardians the right to force his daughter to marry someone who is not recognized.

There are some Muslims who defend these actions, on the basis of their olehulama been decided based on the books of fiqh. The next impact is, among many Muslim scholars even the view that feminism is a new approach that is more relevant to the times.

E. Muslim feminists

As was noted earlier that the present issue of feminism began to enter Islam kewilayah. Many Muslim scholars who see it as a new approach to Islamic studies. The term Muslim feminists began to be introduced and used in the 1990s. Among the figures who ever uses that term is Afsaneh Najmabedeh and Ziba Mir-Hosseini from Tehran, Yesim Arat of Turkey and Mai Yamani of Saudi Arabia through her book Feminism and Islam which were published in the year 19 196> While Egypt is said to be a famous Muslim feminist terlahirnya Huda Shaarawi characters who founded The Egyptian Femins Union in 1923. Basically the same principles and their thinking by Western feminists. Demikina However, not all feel comfortable openly mengaikan themselves with the struggle of Muslim feminists.

Priorotas is mostly Muslim feminists is to reconstruct the religious laws relating to family law in particular women with re-assessing and analyzing religious texts, the Qur'an al-Sunna ad, and interpret it from a different perspective to the interpretation klsik (ijtihat and interpretation) . Muslim feminists charged that the principles of justice and equality are emphasized by the Quran did not take place due to the mufassireen that generally men have produced commentator of the Qur'an which support the doctrine that elevates the dignity of men and justify the superiority of men. Muslim feminists also argue that there is gender bias (foot note) is thick in the sharia laws taken from the hadiths of Muhammad SAW for reasons of hadith narrators among the Companions is a man who can not break free from the influence of patriarchal practice. In practice Muslim feminists actually antagonistic to several legal acts in the Qur'an relating to women.

F. Muslim Feminist Mistake

Deviations thinking done by Muslim feminists attributed to differences in perspective. For femism, their views have been stained by Western glasses, so they interpret Islam in a different way. Semisalnya in which case they often permasalahkan the patriarchal society. According to Grant Rauf Izzat, the concept of patriarchy is not known and nothing in Islamic societies. This concept was actually introduced by Western writers to describe Islamic society without understanding the institution of family and society in Islam. The term patriarchy was originally used to describe the system of absolute power of the father of the nature of his family members. The term is also associated with the term "families" which in Latin means lading and property ownership for a father. Thus the concept is not applied according to the teachings of Islam and Islamic law.

G. The Middle Way

As mentioned above, that from one side there are some Muslims who act over protective or commonly known as the conservatives, while on the other hand there are Muslims who are liberal minded. This makes us as if it lies between two extremes, where one of them thinking, and other traditionally liberal thinking secar. However, essentially in the Islamic tradition there is a third alternative to be a middle way, ie they are known as Islamists, who took the simple approach and balance between two conflicting approaches namely konserfativ and liberal. For example, when the Islamic hijab establish liability, there are differences of opinion among scholars, both the face and wrists, including female genitalia that must be covered. While the group konserfativ also choose a more stringent law of obligations cover the entire face and palms. For being cautious. However, the opinion gologan is not blamed by conservative Islamists.

In many cases, this approach is protektifbahkan konserfativ is sometimes said to be over protective, so that some scholars peerintahan Afghanistan when the Taliban did not justify the time women get their rights in education. As for Islamist groups, education is not only a right, but it is an obligation for every Muslim regardless of gender. Therefore, the opinion as above is the subjective Based ijtihad scholars, because both the texts of the Qur'an and hadith did not provide justification to limit the rights of women in education.

H. Role of Women in the Family

Islam gave equality between ppria and women, this principle is recognized by all Islamic scholars as well as some feminist groups, although there are some feminists who say Islam is the same as other divine religions are misogynist. The concept of equality is then interpreted by a different paradigm, so that finally shall apply the conflict between Islamists and feminists. For feminist groups, equality should mean equal rights or leveling in all areas of life that was involved by the men and women, including the preformance of worship. Therefore, feminists called for the right to become priests and preachers Friday prayers, the supreme leader (caliph), get equal rights in inheritance and property rights to thalaq husband? (to say thalaq).

As for the Islamists. Equality should not meaningful generalizations. In the eyes of Islam, justice is to put something in place so that should mempertimbangakn kesesuian, feasibility, availability and nature in one of the best places for a particular task. Islamic moral values ​​put a sting dikedudukan high so it can be seen that value affects any rules and regulations. Women are given the role of distinctive and exclusive secar to raise children, because women are given the privilege and uniqueness that is not owned by men in terms of biology, physiology, mental and emotional.

Judging from the positive side, good cooperation from the male-female should produce perfection and harmony. Versus when male-female have the same privileges, then such a state would require the mutual help feeling between each liannya. In addition, the desired leadership in Islam is based on affection and

I. Male Leadership in the Family

Leadership of men to women leaning against the verses of the Qur'an Surat an-Nisa verse 34, as follows:

"The man is a leader for women, because Allah has preferred in part their (male) over in part another (female), and because they (men) have been spend of their property. So therefore a pious woman, who is obedient to God again themselves when maintain his absence, because God has kept (them). the women that you worried about nusyuz, Then Advise them and separate them in their beds, and beat them. then if they obey your, so do not be looking for a way to troubling. Surely Allah is High, Most great. "

The scholars have interpreted the words and mufassireen quwamah with different interpretations. At-Tabari interprets the sentence as the executor of the task (Naafidhii al-amr) and protective. Ibn Kathir says Qawamah meaningful man is the chairman and magnifying households because men are better than women. In a commentary also al_Jalalain Qawaamuun intent is to men as mussallituun (ruler). Although the interpretation of two scholars over the last two may seem gender biased, but the interpretations of other scholars also need dipertimbangakn. Contemporary scholars such as Muhammad al-Sha'rawi Mutawwali also argued that al-qawaamah totally meaningless and tafdhil Tamlik (ownership and diskriminasilkelebihan). Sayyid Qutb in his commentary writes that referred to in qawaamah not merely the leader but is a person who is charged with al-ma'ash tadbir (the maintenance of life / livelihood). For Yusf Qaradawi also, qawaamah this needs to be understood by the word equation that is al-mas'uliyyah the responsibility and trust. It is therefore clear that in the eyes of Islam leadership is not a glory and excess melaikan a responsibility and burden. This is certainly different from the concept of leadership from a Western perspective that has split the power with morality.

If seen and studied more thoroughly, in fact there is unity of opinion in the interpretation of the words qawamah. In essence, the side dish to agree that man's job is to direct and provide protection for women. This understanding is inevitable because the overall message is clear in the verse. Islamist groups such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Sayyid Qutb and Muhammad al-Sha'rawi Mutawalli scholars maintain previous interpretation that the verse is put man as a leader in the household.

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Esposito, John L. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Esposito, John L. Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1982. A comparative study of the evolution of law in relation to women in Muslim societies.

Essack, Farid, Quran Liberation and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity Against Oppression, One World Publications, Oxford, England, 1997.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck and John L. Esposito,(eds.). Islam, Gender and Social Change. New York / Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. The essays collected in this book place the issue of religious resurgence in the Muslim world in its historical context and present case studies of Muslim societies from North Africa to Southeast Asia. These fascinating studies shed light on the impact of the Islamic resurgence on gender issues in Iran, Eqypt, Jordan, Pakistan, Oman, Bahrain, the Philippines, and Kuwait. Taken together, the essays reveal the wide variety that exists among Mslim societies and believers, and the complexity of the issues under consideration. They show that new things are happening for women across the Islamic world, and are in many cases being initiated by women themselves. This volume as a whole militates against the stereoype of Muslim women as repressed, passive, and without initiative, while acknowledging the very real obstacles to women’s initiatives in most of these societies.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck and Banks , Ellison,( eds.). Women, Religion and Social Change. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. Volume focusing on how women from numerous traditions have effected social change, and on how faith has motivated women’s participation in this process.

Hapas, Adjarail B.   Folk Islam in Sulu:  A Study of Changes and Development  Dissertation, Graduate Study Program,  College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines, 1993.  

Hassan, Nasima  “Marriage and Divorce in Islam,” Wife:  Her Rights and Status in Islam  www.submission.org/women/ beatings.html   p. 4

Hassan, Riffat, Rights of Women Within Islamic Communities, in: John Witte,Jr./ Johan D. van der Vyver (eds.),Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives,The Hague/ Boston/ London 1996, pp. 361-386.

Hawley, John Stratton, (ed.). Fundamentalism and Gender. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. A concise  treatment of fundamentalism from a comparative perspective, examining the American Christian, Indian Muslim and Hindu, and “new Japanese religious” contexts. Contains a relevant introduction explaining the characteristics of fundamentalisms as related to gender construction.

Howland, Courtney. Religious Fundamentalisms and the Human Rights of Women. New York: Palgrave, 1999.

Ilkkaracan, Pinar. (ed.), Women and Sexuality in Muslim Societies. Turkey: Women for Women’s Human Rights, 2000.Control of women’s sexuality remains to be one of the most powerful tools of patriarchy in most societies.The essays in this volume  show that the sexual oppression of Muslim women is not the result of an “Islamic” vision of sexuality, but a combination of political, social and economic inequalities throughout the ages.However, within this context religion is often misused as a powerful instrument of control, with the goal of legitimizing violations of women’s human rights

Jajurie, Raissa, Human Rights, Women’s Reproductive Rights as Human Rights, in: Gender, Muslim Laws and Reproductive Rights, Pilipina Legal Resources Center, Inc., Davao City, Philippines,2001. pp. 45-61.

Jundam, Mashur Bin-Ghalib   Adat Law:  A Socializing Force in a Philippine Muslim Community MA Thesis, Asian Studies.  University of the Philippines, 1983.

Karmi, Ghada. “Women, Islam, and Patriarchy.”  In Mai Yamani, (ed.). feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives. Berkshire, United Kingdom: Ithaca Press, 1996.pp.69-85. 

Kiefer, Thomas   The Tausug:  Law and Violence in a Philippine Moslem Society,  Holt, Rinehart, Winston Publishing.  1972

Kiefer, Thomas  Philippine Muslim (Tausug) Marriages on Jolo Island  http://www.zawaj.com/weddintways/tausag/tausag1. html

Lindholm, Tore and Kari Vogt.(eds.), Islamic Law Reform and Human Rights: Challenges and Rejoinders.Copenhagen / Lund / Oslo:Norwegian institute of Human Rights,1993. This book contains revised versions of the papers presented to the Seminar on Human Rights and the Modern Application of Islamic Law, hosted by the Norwegian Institute of Human Rights, Oslo, 14 and 15 February 1992. The seminar was organized in order to promote free and expert debate on issues presented by Prof. An-Naim in toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and international Law (1990).

Lerner, Gerda. The Creation of Patriarchy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Lerner, Natan, Religion, Beliefs, And International Human Rigths, New York: Orbis Books;  2000.The author, a distinguished Israeli jurist provides an authoritative distillation and analysis of modern international norms on religious rights and liberties—with particular attention to modern contraversies over religious and racial  discrimination, genocide and group libel, proselytism and conversion, and religious group rights and their limits.

Marcoses-Natsir, Lies, Islam and the Principles of Reproductives Rights: Searching for an Alternative Methodology, in: Gender, Muslim Laws and Reproductive Rights, Pilipina Legal Resources Center, Inc., Davao City , Philippines, 2001, pp.31-36.

Mas’udi, Masdar F., Islamic Women’s Reproductive Rights, in: Gender, Muslim Laws and Reproductive Rights, Pilipina Legal Resources Center, Inc., Davao City, Philippines, 2001.pp.62-72.

Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics. Boulder and San Francisco: Westview Press; London: Pinter Press, 1999. In this book  Ann elizabeth Mayer offers a critical assessment of recent  human rights schemes proposed by Muslim conservatives as alternatives to the International Bill of Human Rights. She argues that these schemes possess no direct antecedents in the premodern Islamic tradition but are legal hybrids of Islamic and international ptinciples.Dr. Mayer contrasts the position of Muslim conservatives with that of Muslims who endorse international human rights standards as fully compatible with Islam and offers evidence that the provisions of Islamic human rights schemes tend to dilute and nullify rights guaranteed by international law.Dr. Mayer persuasively demonstrates that it is not Islamic tradition that discourages respect for human rights but the selective interpretation and  application of Islamic law and tradition by Muslim groups who are threatened by the demand for  democratic freedoms throughout the Muslim world.

Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Rhetorical Strategies and Official Policies on Women’s Rights: The Merits and Drawbacks of the New World Hypocrisy, in Mahnaz Afkhami,(ed.), Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World. London / New York: I.B. Taurus Publishers, 1995.pp.104-132.

Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam and Human Rights: Tradtion and Politics. Boulder and San Francisco:Westview Press; London: Pinter Press, 1991. A sophisticated critique of Islamic human rights schemes in comparison with universal standards of human rights. Examines conceptions of human rights in the Egyptian, Iranian, Pakistani, and Sudanese contexts. Argues that those who selectively interpret and apply Islamic law  and tradition do so to reinforce hierarchical vested interesrts.

Mernissi, Fatima. Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World. California/ New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1993.

Mernissi, Fatima. The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam.Translated by Mary Jo Lakeland. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc, 1991 ed. A feminist reading of Islamic texts that focuses on the issue of veiling to draw broader implications for women’s roles in society.

Mernissi, Fatima, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society, Indiana University Press. Bloomington/ Indianapolis,1987.The author argues that the present conservative wave against women in the Muslim world is a defense against recent profound changes in sex roles and in perceptions of sexual identity.Sexual inequality is a prominent feature of both Western and Islamic societies, but the underlying concepts of female sexuality in Christian and Muslim traditions are very different.The Islamic view of women as active sexual beings resulted in stricter regulation and control of women’s sexuality, which Muslim theorists regarded as a threat to civilized society.But the requirements of modernization are incompatible with traditional Muslim strictures, and the ensuing contradictions pervade nearly all Muslim countries.Drawing on popular source materials, the author explores the disorienting effects of modern life on male-female relations, looks at the male-female unit as a basic element of the structure of the Muslim system, and explores the sexual dynamics of the Muslim world

Munir, Lily Zakiyah, Living with Islam in the 21^st century: Islam, Modernity and Justice for women. Unpublished Article. Jakarta, July 2003. 9pp.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

Munir, Lily Zakiyah, Islamic Fundamentalism and Its Impact on Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights. Unpublished Article, 2003.22pp. This paper explores the impact of Islamic fundamentalism on sexual and reproductive health and rights by studying the literature and observing the realities in the current Indonesian context. It focuses on five crucial relevant issues: violence against women, safe abortion, and treatment of drug users, child prostitution, and stigmatization of HIV / AIDS victims. It is aimed at identifying the gap between the ideals of Islam and their realities among Muslim societies and unfolding an alternative discourse, which promotes tolerance, justice, and a more peaceful aspect of the religion.

Munir, Lily Zakiyah, Islam, Gender, and Formal Shari’a in Indonesia, Unpublished Article, 2003.

Munir, Lily Zakiyah,  Islam, Modernity and Justice for Women, A Paper presented at the Islam and Human Rights Fellow Lecture, October 14, 2003, organized by the Islam and Human Rights Project, School of Law, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, U.S.A.

Munir, Lily Zakiyah, Islam and Sexual Health From Ideals to Realities: A Case Study of Elderly Javanese Muslim Women, in: Gender, Muslim Laws and Reproductive Rights, Pilipina Legal Resources Center, Inc., Davao City, Philppines, 2001,pp.37-44.

Munir, Lily Zakiyah, Islam, Gender and Equal Rights for Women, The Jakarta Post,December 10,2002,

Munir,Lily Zakiyah, Misunderstanding of Polygamy Lingers in Islam, The Jakarta Post, May 24,2003, p.7.

Murata, Sachiko. The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought.Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. A rich anthology of Islamic teachings on the nature of the relationship between God and the world, the world and human beings, and human beings and God, which stresses gender symbolism. It argues that Muslim authors tend to analyze divine and human realities with a view toward complementarity that is similar to the Chinese idea of yin/yang.

Muzaffar, Chandra  Islam and the Legitimate Boundaries of Action When Struggling for Justice, Selangor, Malaysia.   2002

National Statistics Office, Socio-Economic Profile, the Province of Sulu,  2001.   

Omran, Abdel Rahim. Family Planning in the Legacy of Islam. London and New York: Routledge, 1992. A detailed study of the Qur’an, the Hadith, and commentaries by Muslim scholars on issues of family planning such as abortion, contraceptive use, and sterilization.

Peach, Lucinda Joy. Women and World Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2002.

Rahman, Fazlur. Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Analysis of the effects of historical change on Islamic thought with particular reference to the role of education.

Roy, Oliver. The Failure of Political Islam. London: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1994.

Rasul, Jainal D.  The Philippine Muslims Struggle for Identity (Manila Nueva Eva Press Inc., 1970) 

Shaaban, Bouthaina. The Muted Voices of Women Interpreters, in Mahnaz Afkhami, (ed.), Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World. London / New york: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1995.pp.61-75.

Shaheed, Farida. Networking for Change: The Role of the Women’s Groups in Initiating Dialogue on Women’s Issues, in Mahnaz Afkhami, (ed.). Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World. London / New York: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1995.pp.78-103.

Sisters in Islam. Are Muslim Men Allowed to Beat Their Wives? Sisters in Islam, United Selangor Press Sdn. Bhd, 1991. Pamphlet that examines thos verses from the Qur’an on men’s treatment of women and concludes that Islam prohibits mental and physical cruelty by men against women.

Sisters in Islam, Are women and Men Equal Before Allah? Malaysia: Sisters in Islam, United Selangor Press, Sdn. Bhd, 1991. Pamphlet that examines relevant verses from the Qur’an and concludes that Islam considers women and men equal in the eyes of God.

Sonbol, Amira El Ashary, (ed.). Women, the Family and Divorce Laws in Islamic history. Syracuse: syracuse University Press, 1996. An excellent collection of articles drawing on archival sources , aiming to achieve four goals: to focus on the history of women, family, and divorce in order to assess gender relations in Muslim societies; to raise questions about this history that have received little scholarly attention—such as the issue of domestic violence and laws regarding children; to examine non-Muslim communities within Ottoman empire in order to expose the fallacy of separating them analytically from Muslims; and to propose new methodologies and theories for understanding women and the family.

Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Women in the Qur’an, Traditions, and Interpretation. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. A detailed study of women’s roles as presented in the Qur’an, the hadith, and commentaries and interpretations. Focuses on how modernists, conservatives, and fundamentalists have understood Islam’s female images and models according to their own socio-political agenda. It contains excellent bibliography, glossary of terms related to Islam.

Tagayan, Abdelnazer A.   The Tausug Pagtiyaun (Marriage):  Then and Now  M.A. Thesis, Institute of Islamic Studies, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.) April 2003

Taha, Mahmud Mohamed. The Second Message of Islam. Translated and introduced by Abdullahi Ahmed An-Naim. Syracuse,N.Y.,: Syracuse University Press, 1987.

Tan, Samuel K.  Decolonization and Filipino Muslim Identity, Philippine Social Science Review (January-December 1984). 

Tibi, Bassam. The  Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Wadud, Amina. Qur’an and Women: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Wadud-Muhsin, Amina. Qur’an and Women. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn Bhd, 1992. A concise work arguing that in order to maintain its relevance on the question of women’s role in society, the Qur’an must be continually reinterpreted.

Amina Wadud-Muhsin, The Qur`an, Shari`a and the Citizenship Rights of Muslim Women in the Umma.  IN Shari`a Law and the Modern Nation-State:  A Malaysian Symposium edited by Norani Othman and published by SIS Forum (Malaysia) Berhad, Kuala Lumpur.  1994

Wanyeki, Muthoni (ed.). Women and Land in Africa: Culture, Religion and Realizing Women’s Rights.London / New York:Zed Books Ltd, 2003.This volume on Women in Africa is the product of original research into the changing situations that rural African women are experiencing in relation to land rights.Its authors link research and analysis with advocacy and action—the purpose being to contribute towards equalizing gender relations and promoting the ability of African women to achieve greater economic independence as well as other human rights.

Watson, Helen. Women and the Viel: Personal Responses to Global Process, in Akbar Ahmed and Hastings Donnan, (eds.), Islam, Globalization and Postmodernity. London / New York: Routledge, 1994.pp.141-159.

Weiss, Anita. Challenges for Muslim Women in a postmodern World, in Akbar Ahmed and Hastings Donnan, (eds.), Islam, Globalization and Postmodernity. London / New York: Routledge, 1994,pp.126-140.

Women in the Qur’an: Qur’anic Interpretation by Women Meeting July 8-13, 1990, Karachi. Shirkat Gah: Pakistan, 1990. Information kit containing verses of the Qur’an—both in Arabic and in three, different English translations—pertaining to women and categorized by issue.

Young, Serenity. An Anthololgy of Sacred Texts by and about Women. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1994.A comprehensive collection and analysis of texts and traditions that uncovers the male-centered bias of most studies of religion and corrects this trend by focusing on women. Looks at Judaism, Christianity, Islam, the Ancient Near East, Greece, and Rome, Northern European Paganism, shamanism and Tribal Religion, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and alternative religious movements.