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MIDDLE SEMESTER OF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Subjects       : Developmental Psychology
Lecturer       : KH. Bambang Suryadi, Ph.D.
Credits         : 3 credits

GUIDE:
1. This exam is take home test.
2. Write the full reference.
3. Answer all questions independently.
4. Written answer with the computer, one point five spaced, type the letters

     it is times new roman type.

5. The answer given at the fourth meeting.

About:

1.      Describe the period of human development from the prenatal phase of modern psychology perspective (West) and Islam. To strengthen your answer, give Quranic verse or Hadith Islamic perspective in the discussion.

2.       The theory of sexual development of S. Freud has implications in the world of education, which teaches about reproductive health education (another term for sex education) early. Give your views on the analysis and reproductive health education for children.

3.      According to Kohlberg's developmental theory, moral become a major aspect of the educational process. In the Indonesian context, moral education is often referred to as character education. Give your thoughts to resolve the issue of character education in Indonesia.

Answer:

1.      Phase during prenatal development of man from the perspective of modern psychology (West) and Islam

a.      Stage of development as perceived by western psychology

Stages of prenatal development is divided into three phases, namely the period of the germinal stage, the stage of the embryo, and fetus stage. To condense the prenatal development of the third period, it can be explained that the initial creation of the human family stems from a quintessence that rise from the ground (male sperm). Then the sperm meets the ovum becomes a zygote and then stored in a sturdy (womb). According to the perception of western psychology, the stages is as follows:

# 1 Definitions of periods

Prenatal or antenatal development is the process in which a human embryo or fetus (or foetus) ge states during pregnancy, from fertilization until birth. Often, the terms fetal development, foetal development, or embryology are used in a similar sense.

After fertilization the embryogenesis starts. In humans, when embryogenesis finishes, by the end of the tenth week of gestational age, the precursors of all the major organs of the body have been created. Therefore, the following period, the fetal period, is described both topically on one hand, i.e. by organ, and strictly chronologically on the other, by a list of major occurrences by weeks of gestational age.

# 2 Fertilization

When semen is deposited in the vagina, the spermatozoa travel through the cervix and body of the uterus and into the Fallopian tubes. Fertilization of the ovum (egg cell) usually takes place in the Fallopian tube. Many sperm must cooperate to penetrate the thick protective shell-like barrier that surrounds the ovum. The first sperm that penetrates fully into the egg donates its genetic material (DNA). The egg then polarizes, repelling any additional sperm. The resulting combination is called a zygote, a new and genetically unique human organism. The term "conception" refers variably to either fertilization or to formation of the conceptus after uterine implantation, and this terminology is controversial.

Prior to fertilization, each ovum contains a complete human genome, including a single (X) but no (Y) chromosome. Likewise, each spermatozoon contains a complete set of autosomes and a single sex chromosome, either (X) or (Y). The resulting human zygote is similar to the majority of somatic cells because it contains two copies of the genome in a diploid set of chromosomes. One set of chromosomes came from the nucleus of the ovum and the second set from the nucleus of the sperm.

If the spermatozoon contributes a (Y) chromosome then the zygote will develop as a male. Unlike the (X) chromosome, the (Y) chromosome contains very little genetic information. However it does contain a gene, (SRY), which will switch on androgen production at a later stage, leading to the development of a male body type. In contrast, the mitochondrial genetic information of the zygote comes entirely from the mother via the ovum.

# 3 Embryonic period

The embryonic period in humans begins at fertilization (penetration of the egg by the sperm) and continues until the end of the tenth week of gestation (eight week by embryonic age).

The embryo spends the next few days traveling down the Fallopian tube. It starts out as a single cell zygote and then divides several times to form a ball of cells called a morula. Further cellular division is accompanied by the formation of a small cavity between the cells. This stage is called a blastocyst. Up to this point there is no growth in the overall size of the embryo, as it is confined within a glycoprotein shell, known as the zona pellucida. Instead, each division produces successively smaller cells.

The blastocyst reaches the uterus at roughly the fifth day after fertilization. It is here that lysis of the zona pellucida occurs. This process is analogous to zona hatching, a term that refers to the emergence of the blastocyst from the zona pellucida, when incubated in vitro. This allows the trophectoderm cells of the blastocyst to come into contact with, and adhere to, the endometrial cells of the uterus. The trophectoderm will eventually give rise to extra-embryonic structures, such as the placenta and the membranes. The embryo becomes embedded in the endometrium in a process called implantation. In most successful pregnancies, the embryo implants eight to ten days after ovulation (Wilcox et al. 1999). The embryo, the extra-embryonic membranes, and the placenta are collectively referred to as a conceptus, or the "products of conception".

Rapid growth occurs and the embryo's main external features begin to take form. This process is called differentiation, which produces the varied cell types (such as blood cells, kidney cells, and nerve cells). A spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, in the first trimester of pregnancy is usually due to major genetic mistakes or abnormalities in the developing embryo.

    * 3.1 Changes by weeks of gestation

          3.1.1 Gestational age vs. embryonic age

Gestational age is the time that has passed since the onset of the last menstruation, which generally or as standard occurs 2 weeks before the actual fertilization. Embryonic age, in contrast measures the actual age of the embryo or fetus from the time of fertilization. Nevertheless, menstruation has historically been the only means of estimating embryonal/fetal age, and is still the presumed measure if not else specified. However, the actual duration between last menstruation and fertilization may in fact differ from the standard 2 weeks by several days.

Thus, the first week of embryonic age is already week three counting with gestational age.

Furthermore, the number of the week is one more than the actual age of the embryo/fetus. For example, the embryo is 0 whole weeks old during the 1st week after fertilization.

          3.1.2 Week 1–2

Gestational age: 0 weeks and 0 days until to 1 week and 6 days old. 1–14 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: -2 to -1 weeks old. (Week 1–2 of gestational age are theoretical extrapolations of embryonic age, since the fertilization hasn't actually occurred yet.)

          3.1.3 Week 3

Gestational age: 2 weeks and 0 days until 2 weeks and 6 days old. 15–21 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week near 1. 0 (whole) weeks old. 1–7 days from fertilization.

          3.1.4 Week 4

Gestational age: 3 weeks and 0 days until 3 weeks and 6 days old. 22–28 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week near 2. 1 week old. 8–14 days from fertilization.

          3.1.5 Week 5

Gestational age: 4 weeks and 0 days until 4 weeks and 6 days old. 29–35 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week near 3. 2 weeks old. 15–21 days from fertilization.

          3.1.6 Week 6

Gestational age: 5 weeks and 0 days until 5 weeks and 6 days old. 36–42 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week near 4. 3 weeks old. 22–28 days from fertilization.

          3.1.7 Week 7

Gestational age: 6 weeks and 0 days until 6 weeks and 6 days old. 43–49 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week near 5. 4 weeks old. 29–35 days from fertilization.

          3.1.8 Week 8

Gestational age: 7 weeks and 0 days until 7 weeks and 6 days old. 50–56 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week nr 6. 5 weeks old. 36–42 days from fertilization.

          3.1.9 Week 9

Gestational age: 8 weeks and 0 days until 8 weeks and 6 days old. 57–63 days from last menstruation.

Embryonic age: Week nr 7. 6 weeks old. 43–49 days from fertilization.

b.      Prenatal developmental stages according to Islam

According to the Islamic perspective, human life has begun at the time before birth. Human beings have a soul that has lived before his birth in the world. The human soul is breathed into angels for physical human when he conceived his mother.
According to Islamic psychology of the semen would be a clot of blood, then blood clot will be a piece of flesh, and then from a lump of flesh will be made in the bones and will be wrapped in bacon. Then form a human has looked. That humans have evolved since before birth (still in the womb) or commonly called the prenatal period. The development was governed by God in such a way through the stages quite complicated, Blessed is He who created man in the best form. The stages in question are germinal stage, embryonic, and fetal. In each stage, the man had a very orderly process of development. In fact all of them have been mentioned in the Qur'an and hadith the Prophet in detail.

Among the developments are very important in human life in the womb is maternal (pre-natal). Pre-natal period is due after the baby is born the compound that lasts about 266 days or 280 days after the compounds of the first period of the last before someone pregnant. What is meant here is the process by which compounds the sperm and ovum unite to form a single cell called a zygote.

(1)   Prenatal period

Prenatal period (pre natal period) begins at fertilization (conception) and ends at birth (approximately 38 weeks). During prenatal development, man has developed very fast in his life. Currently, scientists divide the prenatal development (stages of embryonic development) is divided into three main periods: 1) the germinal stage (from conception to two weeks), 2) the embryonic stage (two to eight weeks), and 3) fetal stage (two to nine months ).

In one of the verses of the Quran described that God puts babies weak at the beginning of its development in a place that is safe and sturdy (13:سُوْرَةْْ اَلْمُؤْمِنُوْنْ )

  .

ثُمَّ جَعَلْنَهُ نُطْفَةً فِىْ قَرَارٍمَّكِيْنٍ

Explanation of the meaning: "Then we placed him semen (stored) in a solid (womb)."

Babies in the belly of the mother can be said to be in a safe and sturdy, allowing it to grow in relative safe from attacks outside world, the food intake of the mother fulfilled. The definition of a safe and sturdy place earlier is the womb (uterus). The uterus is a muscular space and strong weighing about 50 grams. This structure is not sufficient for a developing baby. Thus, the structure of the uterus will undergo changes during pregnancy. Size of the uterus will grow gradually increased to 1100 grams at the end of pregnancy.

In many verses, the Qur'an also has detailed stages of development in the mother's womb (12 , 13, 14:سُوْرَةْْ اَلْمُؤْمِنُوْن ْ ):

"وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا الإِنْسَنَ مِنْ سُلَلَةٍ مِّنْ طِيْنٍ, ثُمَّ جَعَلْنَهُ نُطْفَةً فِىْ قَرَارٍمَّكِيْنٍ,  ثُمَّ خَلَقْنَا النٌّطْفَةَ عَلَقَةً فَخَلَقْنَا الْعَلَقَةَ مُضْغَةً فَخَلَقْنَا الْمُضْغَةَ عِظَمًا فَكَسَوْنَا الْعِظَمَ لَحْمًا ثُمَّ أَنْشَأْ نَهُ خَلَقًا ءَاخَرَا فَتَبَرَكَ اللهُ أَحْسَنُ الْخَلِقِيْنَ".

Explanation of the meaning: "And Verily we have created man from a quintessence (derived) from the ground, then we placed him semen (stored) in a solid (womb). Then cum We gave blood clot, then a blood clot a lump of flesh that we make, and we make it a piece of flesh bones, then we wrap the bones with flesh. then we gave him a creature (form) else. So it be to almighty God, the creator of the best. "

(2)   Development prenatal phase

Pre-embryonic is the beginning of human life. This process begins when the sperm penetrates the egg in the fertilization process, which normally occurs due to sexual relations between men and women. At this stage the zygote is formed.

There is a hadith that discuss the creation process at this stage, for example when the Prophet was asked by a Jew,"From the material is man created?" He answered, "O Jew, each man in made from the semen of men (النطفة) and (النطفة) female semen." (Hadith History of Ahmad).

Zygotes formed from a mixture of sperm and egg ("droplets mixed"). The fertilized egg, or zygote, moves down the fallopian tube to the uterus. This movement takes over four days. During this movement, originally in the form of a single zygote cell, through a process of mitosis divides into two identical cells. This cleavage occurs about every 30 hours. In the process of this division, the baby is still called blastocyte (blastula), which consists of 100 cells. The outside blastocyte will become the placenta, while the inside will become the embryo.

In the second week, the baby made up of about 150 cells. Placenta begins to form, part of the cell condenses and developed into three layers called the embryonic disc (embryonic disc), which consists of a layer of ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In the process of differentiation, the cells in each layer develop into tissues and organs. The cells of the outer layer (ectoderm or ectoblast) forming the brain, spine, sense of touch, and the lens.

(3)   Development embryo phase

The next stage of development is called the embryo stage, lasted five and a half weeks. Embryonic stage begins when the zygote has been well embedded in the uterine wall. In this stage, the baby's system and organs begin to form the basis of the arrangement of the cells. Although the outer shape is much different than human adults, several forms such as the eyes and the hands, ears and legs even be recognizable.

The Qur'an also discusses the process of embryological development stage by stage in this period. According to the Qur'an النطفة droplets would then develop into العلقة, such as the following (38,39:سُوْرَةْْ اَلْقِيَامَةْ ) :

"ثُمَّ كَانَ عَلَقَةً فَخَلَقَ فَسَوَّى, لإَجَعَلَ مِنْهُ الزَّ وْ جَيْنِ الذِّكْرَ."

Explanation of the meaning: "semen then it becomes a clot of blood, then God created it, and refine it, then God made thereof a pair: male and female."

As the leeches suck the blood to the skin, clusters of cells (embryonic) humans to suck blood from the wall of the uterus (endometrium) become pregnant. Countless 23-24 day-old embryo act like leeches before. Embryos at this stage can only be seen with a microscope. After that, just at the beginning of the fourth week, the embryo can be seen by the naked eye.

Tues throphoblast the outer layer of the cell clusters did secretion of an enzyme called hyaluronidase. These enzymes will destroy the acid mantle (hyaluronic acid) in the uterine lining tissue. Tues throphoblast also responsible in forming the placenta as a buffer between the embryo and the mother's blood. Among the placenta and the baby are the three blood vessels in its development will be similar to a long rope called the umbilical cord (umbilical cord). One is called the umbilical vein vessel that functions to transport blood containing nutrients and oxygen from the placenta to the baby. Two other channels are called umbilical artery helpful to do that contain blood transport and disposal of carbon dioxide generated by the food from the baby to the placenta.
At the beginning of the third week, the human embryo looks like a "piece of meat" wrapped, which continues to perform division for further developments. At the end of the fourth week, starting to look like the expansion of the dental mold, which will develop into the organs and limbs are complete. If we follow the development of the embryo, we find after four weeks, the differentiation process is taking place in which a group of cells in the embryo transform itself into a form specific organ bigger. One of the earliest structures formed in this stage is the cartilaginous bones which form the basis of human skeleton (in a few months later cartilage hardened and strengthened). This was followed by the emergence of the embryo organs, including muscles, ears, eyes, kidneys, heart, and others.

Embryonic period is usually considered to be a critical time because of physical shape as it can be interrupted by a booming unfavorable conditions in the prenatal environment.

(4)   Fetal phase

   Entering the third stage of pregnancy, the embryo is fetal. This stage lasts about 30 weeks, starting from the eighth week of pregnancy and ended up at birth. In this stage, the face, hands, and feet begin to look different fetus and the fetus appears in human form. In addition, the brain has also been formed, and began to become more complex in recent months.

In the early weeks of this fetal stage of development, most of the major organs and tissues have been established. Face shape has been well established. Ear hole began to form. The development of the eye also looks almost full, despite lining eyes still closed and will not open until the 28th week. Hands, arms, legs, thighs and fingers have fully formed. Fetus can form a fist from his fingers. Nails teeth begin to form and will begin to develop in the mouth meat, the heart has almost fully developed, and have been able to hear the heartbeat with the Doppler machine. Red blood cells are being produced in the liver. Testosterone (male sex hormones) have been produced in the testes in male fetuses.

Only in the second trimester (weeks 13-16), the brain has full develop. Fetus can suck, chew, and making breathing sound is not regular. Fetus has also been able to feel pain. Fetal skin is still transparent. Elongated muscle tissue and bones stronger. Liver and other organ produces fluid required. Eyebrows and eye lines appear. Fetus is very actively engaged, including kicks and even somersaults.

At twenty weeks, the baby's movement has typically can be felt on the mother's abdomen. Fingernails and toes have appeared. Lanugo, baby fuzz cover the entire body. Fetus can hear and recognize the mother's voice. The genitals can be seen using ultrasound.

In the third trimester protective waxy substance called vernix covering the skin. At birth, vernix generally will be lost and the rest will absorbed quickly. Fetus has initiated reflex shocked at hand. Fingerprints on the feet and hands began to form. Fetus began practicing breathing by inhaling amniotic fluid in her lungs are developing.

At 25 to 28 weeks of rapid brain development occurs and the nervous system is able to control bodily functions. Eyelids fetus can open and close. At week 29 to 32, increase the amount of fat contained in the body of the fetus. Respiratory rhythm has occurred, but the immature lungs. Fetus sleep 90-95% every day.

At around week 38 or to 40, fetuses are old enough. Lanugo begins to lose except on the upper arms and shoulders. Baby's hair when it starts to thicken. The lungs are mature. The average weight of babies at birth of about 2.5 - 3.5 kg. At birth the placenta attached to the uterus and the umbilical cord will be cut so the first time the baby breathe of air. Breathing will trigger the heart and arteries work push the blood through the lungs.

According to the Islamic perspective, has also begun destined determined when humans are still in the process of pregnancy. Hadith illustrates that God sent an angel to take care of the development mailing embryo accompanied by God's providence embryos. For example:

"God represents an angel in the womb. Then the angel said, "O God, if this النطفة (developing)? O God, if this العلقة (developing)? O God, if this المضغة (developing)? If God willed the creation of embryos, the angel again said, "O my Lord, is it male or female? As the wretched or happy? And when death arrives? "Then all of the provisions that will be written from inside the mother's belly." (Hadith Bukhari history).

(5)   Environmental factors that affect pregnancy.

Environment can affect the pregnancy. The Qur'an states that the external factor is a factor that can affect the pregnancy. This is evident from the verse that tells the death of the entire content of the mother's womb, because the tremendous upheavals experienced on the Day of Judgment, which is an external factor. In the following paragraph stated (سُوْرَةْْ اَلْحَجَْ:2 )    :

"يَوْمَ تَرَوْنَهَا تَذْ هَلُ كُلُّ مُرْضِعَةٍ عَمَّا أَرْضَعَتْ وَتَضَعُ كُلٌّ ذَاتِ حَمْلٍ حَمْلَهَا وَتَرَى وَمَا هُمْ بِسُكَرَى وَلَكِنَّ عَذَابَ اللهِ شَد ِيْدٌ."

Explanation of the meaning (سُوْرَةْْ اَلْحَجَْ:2 ) : "(Remember) the day (when) you see the shock, neglecting all women who breastfeed their children from child content of any breastfeeding and killed a pregnant woman, and you see people drunk, when in fact they were not drunk, but Wrath of God it's very hard. "

Various external factors can not only bring a miscarriage, but also the imperfections of the baby's mother. Scientific research indicates that external or environmental factors may influence the development of pre-natal and birth process, although at the moment, about 95% of infants born to normal. External agents that can affect this called teratogen. Teratogen is any viruses, drugs, chemicals, radiation or other environmental agents that can harm the development of the embryo or fetus to cause physical damage, severe growth retardation, blindness, brain damage, and even death.

 

1.      Analysis and my views on reproductive health education (sex education) for children

a)      Why need sex education?

Children and adolescents are vulnerable to misinformation about sex. If you do not get sex education should, they will consumed myths about sex that is not true. Information about sex should be obtained directly from parents with special attention to their children.

The survey agency coordinating the national family planning in Indonesia showed that more than 60 percent of adolescents in Indonesia have premarital sex. The figures are quite alarming in the country uphold moral values ​​in respect of sex. Why they could have sex before marriage? The reason for the lack of sex education to children and adolescents. When sex education can begin to do?

b)      When sex education begins?

Some parents often answer sex questions with short answers: "Wait you're great!". Actually the best time providing sex education is early! Sex education begins even since the child was a toddler.

If we delay giving sex education when your child starts a teenager, then it's already too late. Because in an age where information is readily available from the Internet and peers, the teen-age children when they have to know more about sex and most likely from the wrong perspective.

c)      How sex education provided?

Here are some steps age and how to provide sex education in accordance with the age of the child:

(1). Toddlers ages 1-5 years

At this age, we can begin to instill sex education. Quite easy, is to start introducing your child to the sex organs of his brief. No need to give a detailed explanation for the child attention span is usually short.

For example, when bathing the child, we can tell the various organs of the child's body, such as hair, head, arms, legs, stomach, and do not forget the penis and the vagina or vulva. Then explain differences in genitalia of the opposite sex, for example, if your child has a younger brother of the opposite sex.

In addition, also emphasize that the genitals should not be displayed in vain, and also explain if there is a touch unnoticed parent, then the child should scream and reporting to parents. Thus, our children can be protected against the rampant sexual violence and sexual abuse against children.

(2). Age 3-10 years

At this age, children usually begin to actively ask about sex. For example, children will ask where it came from. Or general questions such as how the origin of babies. The answers are simple and straightforward usually effective.

(a). Example # 1:

        ""Babies come from?" we can answer from the mother's abdomen. Or you can show me a woman who is pregnant and showing the location of the baby in the mother's abdomen.

(b). Example # 2:

"How does the baby come out of your tummy?" we can answer the baby out of the vagina or vulva hole to get out of the mother's abdomen.

 (c). Example # 3:

"Why does the baby get in your belly?" we can answer that the baby in the mother's abdomen because there are seeds given by the father to the mother. The trick is the father put the seed using the penis and the vagina of the mother. That's called sexual intercourse, and it should only be done by men and women who had been married.

(3). Age was a teenager

When a child is growing, it's time you started to explain about menstruation, wet dreams, as well as the physical changes that happen to a teenager. You could explain that the little girl will experience breast changes shape, or explain the existence of growing feathers around his genitals.

(4). Teens

At this time, a teenager will experience many changes sexually. We need more intensive instill good moral values ​​to him. Give an explanation of the loss of such free sex transmitted diseases and the emotional consequences.

According to research, sex education early will avoid pregnancy outside marriage as children grow into adolescence and adulthood later. No need to talk about sex within the family taboo. Because children need to get the right information from their parents, not from other people about sex.

Because a great curiosity, if the child is not given sex education, then the child will seek answers from others, and it would be scary if sex information obtained from peers or the Internet the information could be wrong.

Therefore, protect your children from an early age to provide them with education about sex in an appropriate manner.

2.      My thinking about the issue of character education in Indonesia

"Character education" is not new in Indonesia's national education system. However, Indonesia's education re-enlivened by the ministry of national education policy.

Old story in Indonesia's national education saying that "change minister, then change the curriculum or change the policy," implies at least two things. First, the issue of education will always be associated with the political or national education policy, so between education and politics are always related very strongly. Secondly, there is a simplification of the assumption that the issue of education as only a matter or matters curricular curriculum of formal education institutions.

As an aspect of the personality, the character is a reflection of the whole of one's personality: the mentality, attitude and behavior. Character education is more appropriate as a kind of character education. Learning about manners, manners, and customs, making this kind of character education is more about the actual behavior of how a person's personality can be called good or bad based on the norms that are contextual and cultural.

How does the ideal of character education? From the simple explanation above, character education should include aspects of the formation of the personality dimension includes universal virtues and cultural awareness in which the norms of life is to grow and develop. In summary, character education can make an individual capable of transcendental consciousness embodied in constructive behavior based on the context of life in which it is located: Has global consciousness, but is able to act according to the local context.

Notes experience:

a.       Formation of character through a number of citizens in the past by upgrading most circles is considered failed, because in practice tends indoctrination, build "pseudo loyalty" to support the existing regime of power, lack of ideals, less build meaningful learning (meaningful learning).

b.      Character education is a life-long education, so there is a chain starting from the family, community and school (college). It is suggested that the formation of personality solely the responsibility of formal educational institutions.

c.       In the educational arena, universities seem merely academic or professional competence building alone, which only leads to the acquisition of knowledge of graduate and / or specific technical expertise, so how the formation of values ​​/ personality for the acquisition of knowledge and expertise that is often overlooked relative . Not infrequently the assessment of the high Academic Performance Index of a graduate, not a guarantee that such individuals describe the actual performance.

Thus my thinking to solve problems of character education in Indonesia, that is:

"Keep in deepening the concept (philosophical or theoretical) about the importance of character education, as well as the effectiveness of the methodology and instruments of character education and its sustainability in the future. At a minimum, post-educational character of the participants are still consistent to behave as expectations of college scholars, conscience and independent. On the other hand, character education is expected to be boosters studies personality development courses that already exist, so the expectation that college graduates have a good character really a motivation for each study program to develop the personality of students and alumni identity. In the long run, it should also be considered to be no longer the character education as a curricular program that became part of the credit system of the semester to graduate as someone who has taken graduate program, but as a character education program of action developed through the character of the campus culture in line with the vision and educational mission.”

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